Introduction
Geological View of Japan as an Island
The Advantages of Being an Island Country
The Features of Trade in Japan as an Island Country
Japanese People and Their High-Context Language
What Has Brought about “Japanese Seriousness”?
The Rules in Battles Unique to Insular Japan and Its National Characteristics
The Reason Why Japan Was Not Colonized
Geological Features of Continental Countries
Territorial Issues
Continental Trade Culture Nurturing a Global Mindset
Multi-Ethnic Countries on Continents
Individualism Nurtured in Continental Lifestyle
Cultural Aspects in Orient
Coexistence with Nature in Eastern Civilizations
Common Themes in Eastern Religions and Mysticism
Eastern Medicine: Viewing Everything as Connected
The Deification of Natural Elements in Forest Religions
Oriental View of Life and Death
The Cultural Aspects of Western World
Western Civilizations' Control Over Nature
Desert Thought and the Rise of Materialism
Western Medicine's Approach to Disease
Monotheism Among Desert Religions
The Western View of Life and Death
Cultural Differences between Japan and the West
Shame and Guilt Cultures
Differences in Aesthetics between Japan and the West
Differences in Gardens between Japan and the West
Differences in Architecture between Japan and the West

Introduction

A world atlas centered on Europe shows Japan as the Far East compared to Western countries. Countries like India, Myanmar, Thailand, and China are part of the continent, whereas Japan is isolated. Being in the Far East and insular makes Japan a unique country. Mountain areas account for 66 percent of Japan’s land, influencing the abundance of spring water. Japan’s rich water resources and thorough hygiene policies make it easier to live in compared to other Asian and African countries.

Japan’s uniqueness also stems from the national isolation policy during the Edo period. In the 15th century, European colonization of Asian countries began, but Japan managed to avoid colonization through a successful isolation policy, leveraging its geographical position as an island. To understand Japan’s geographical features, it’s necessary to recognize two distinctions: between continent and island, and between Orient and Occident.

Where is the border between Orient and Occident? Generally, India is considered the border. The area east of India, including India, is considered the East, while the Near East and Europe are considered the West. The Americas are also included in the West. Monotheistic religions like Christianity and Islam originated in the West, while polytheistic religions like Buddhism originated in the East. Shinto in Japan, and Taoism and Confucianism in China are polytheistic. In Japan, over time, Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism were integrated into Japanese culture.

This chapter discusses the geographical features of Japan and their influence on Japanese culture.

Geological View of Japan as an Island

An island country, unlike continental countries, is clearly bordered by seas, making it hard for other countries to invade and difficult for it to invade them. In continental countries, it is extremely difficult to prevent suspicious people from crossing the terrain due to their adjacency to other countries. In contrast, an island country can easily monitor invaders, as spotting a strange ship at sea is usually sufficient to guard against outsiders.

However, overseas offensive operations are costly and risky; they require a large amount of food and many soldiers to be transported and deployed across the vast ocean. This drawback becomes more serious the longer the operation, as shown historically in the “ABCD Encirclement” before World War II and the “Imphal Campaign” in Burma during the war.

In the long history of Japan before the Meiji Restoration, there were only three international wars: the Battle of Hakusukinoe in 663, the Mongolian Invasions in 1274 and 1281, and the Dispatch of Troops to Korea by Hideyoshi Toyotomi in 1592 and 1598. 

When trading with foreign countries, Japan relied on ships for transportation and faced linguistic barriers, making trade more challenging than for neighboring countries on the same continent. If Japan could produce all its food and resources independently, it would be an ideal situation for the country. During the Edo period, efforts by the Shogunate and farmers led to the successful cultivation of foreign agricultural products like cotton, sugar cane, and Korean carrots. At that time, Japan’s food self-sufficiency rate was nearly 100 percent, which is impressive compared to the present day.

In 2020, it was only 37 percent, with Japan importing about 70 percent of its food (according to the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries). 

Island countries are isolated by the sea, and they tend to have fewer instances of other races entering their territory. Japan is no exception. As of 2021, 97.75 percent of the population are of Japanese nationality, making Japan almost a single-race nation. (The population of Japanese nationality includes the Yamato, the Ainu, the Ryukyu, and Chinese and Korean residents in Japan).

Although each region has its own dialect, Japanese has a basic linguistic structure that allows everyone in the country to communicate effectively. In addition to the language, the ways of living, environments, and cultures are similar across Japan. Beyond spoken discourse, Japanese people can understand true meanings by detecting unspoken situations, making Japan the country with the highest-context culture in the world.

The following phrases have emerged in this cultural context: “Anmoku-no-Ryokai” (unwritten mutual understanding), “Kūki-wo-Yomu” (read the atmosphere), and “Sontaku” (the action not verbally asked but favorably given). 

In the mid Jomon period (4000-5000 B.C.), the climate of Japan changed from the Glacial Period to the Warm Period, allowing people to obtain enough food from the sea and mountains. As a result, the population increased and conflicts over food decreased, leading to a more peaceful lifestyle. Later, in the Yayoi period, the introduction of rice cultivation by people from overseas shifted society to an agricultural lifestyle centered on rice paddies. This led to the formation of villages where people needed to cooperate as a group, and to the development of a society based on a seniority order system.

Agriculture was conducted as a group, not individually, so cooperation and regulation were valued over individual skills. This formed the foundation of Japanese collectivism and gradually led to modern Japanese traits such as seriousness, politeness, diligence, and kindness. At the same time, negative aspects such as exclusivity and peer pressure emerged to maintain group regulation. This is reflected in expressions like “Derukui-wo-Utareru” (the stake that sticks out gets hammered down), “Nagaimono-ni-Makareru” (let yourself be wrapped in a long cloth), and “Murahachibu” (villagers will not help the family with eight out of ten things).  

村八分の残り二分:その「二分」は「火事」と「葬式」らしい。 つまり、いくら「村八分」とはいえ、上記の二つはつきあうということ。 「火事」は、自分のところに火が移ると困るから。 「葬式」は、腐敗や伝染病などで困るから(昔は土葬や火葬も今のように葬儀場ではなく、自分たちでやっていたので)。

Japan is an island country. While some territory can be expanded through reclamation, it is impossible to significantly increase the land area. Additionally, Japan’s geographical situation prevents it from invading and capturing other countries’ territories. Therefore, battles in Japan were only fought over the limited land within the country. As linguistically and culturally identical people fought each other, common battle manners formed. For example, during the Civil War period, there was a rule similar to Shogi: the battle was won by killing the enemy’s chief samurai. The victorious domain could acquire the enemy’s land, but most of the land consisted of rice farms that needed to be maintained by the people. Therefore, the winning domain controlled all the enemy’s soldiers and farmers as their own people. This acquisition and integration were facilitated by a common language and food culture.

Many Japanese in the modern age are said to be indifferent to politics, but this was also true in the past. Farmers and townspeople generally believed they couldn’t oppose authority and their lives wouldn’t change, no matter who ruled them or won the battle. However, the samurai were different. The samurai governments, which began in 1192, established a society where samurai warriors were rewarded with land as “Go-on” (gratitude) from lords and shogunates in return for their achievements in battles. Therefore, they had a great interest in politics and devoted themselves to their masters as “Ho-ko” (service). “Go-on” and “Ho-ko” formed the basic relationship in this samurai circle. This relationship still exists in the modern business world, as seen in the frequent use of “Sonkeigo” (respectful language) and “Kenjougo” (humble language) in emails and business conversations.

Due to European colonialism following the Age of Discovery, all Southeast Asian countries except Thailand were colonized. The two major Asian countries, India and China, were defeated in wars with Britain. In many Asian countries, people were banned from using their national languages and were forced to work against their will. As a result, they lost their unique cultures.

The following are reasons why Japan was able to avoid being colonized:

There may be other factors, but many aspects of traditional cultures and customs remain due to these reasons. Consequently, new Japanese culture will likely emerge based on these foundations.  

Geological Features of Continental Countries

On continents, many borders are unsettled, often leading to significant conflicts between neighboring countries over territory. A typical example is the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. These conflicts can result in changes to territorial boundaries or even the name of the country. The history of Europe and China is a series of repeated conflicts and unifications of small countries. On continents, types of plants and animals for food vary by region and season. In deserts, fertile areas like oases are points of conflict for local populations. If a continental country faces a shortage of food and water and cannot find domestic solutions, it often takes countermeasures by seeking aid from others or even plundering resources from neighboring countries.

Continental countries, being connected by land, find it easier to conduct trading transactions than island countries. Naturally, trading culture has been deeply rooted there because countries can easily obtain goods from each other. The most notable example is the Silk Road, a trade route connecting Chang’an in China and Rome in Italy from the 2nd century B.C. to the 16th century. This flourishing trade route significantly boosted commerce across the two continents.

As a result, countries on these continents have long embraced a global mindset, viewing trade as the exchange of goods not only domestically but also internationally. In the 18th century, with Britain leading the Industrial Revolution, European countries expanded their economic zones and pursued colonization to find markets for their mass-produced goods. The ideas of expansionism and colonialism were influenced by traditional continental trade cultures.   

On continents, the names or residents’ nationalities in the same area often change over time. If there are problems related to economics, politics, military situations, or the environment, people often choose to leave their country for a neighboring one, living as refugees. This is why many continental countries are multi-ethnic.

One example is the USA. As of 2014, the population distribution in America, known as the “Salad Bowl of Races,” was: Caucasians 62.2%, Hispanics 17.8%, Africans 12.4%, Asians 5.2%, and others 2.9%. This demonstrates the diversity of America in comparison with Japan. This diversity is also evident in European national football teams participating in the World Cup, where both white and black players are present. Among the white players, there are various eye and hair colors.

In multi-ethnic countries, communication is inevitably low-context due to differences in language and culture among races. Unlike Japan, a high-context country where people can “read the atmosphere,” multi-ethnic countries often need to adopt a simple and understandable language, like English, as the common language for communication. 

This results in the following cultural difference. When a Japanese person gives a present, they often use the expression “Tumaranai-Mono-desuga,” which literally means “This is not a good thing, but …” If this phrase is literally translated when giving a present to a foreign person, the receiver may wonder why a bad thing was chosen as a gift and be upset by the perceived impoliteness. In such cases, Japanese people should express how valuable the gift is.

Here is another example of Japanese indirect expressions. In Kyoto, serving Ochazuke (rice in hot tea) to a guest at home suggests that the guest should not overstay and it is time to leave. Japanese indirect communication through speech and behavior is a good example of high-context culture in Japan.       

In the Near East and Europe, most regions were not suitable for agricultural cultivation, so throughout history, their lives centered on hunting. Hunting groups formed small bands and wandered throughout the year to find good hunting grounds. Sometimes, they fought with other groups over lands rich in game or sacred religious sites.

While farming relied on the cooperation of group members, individual distinct abilities were not highly valued. However, hunting and battles often revealed individual skills and abilities. This tendency allowed heroic individuals to emerge, leading to the formation of a national character that values individualism and meritocracy

In Western countries, children are encouraged to sleep alone from infancy to foster a sense of independence. In environments where individual priorities surpass group priorities, everyone is considered independent, even within families or friend groups. Individuals pursue their goals as top priority and tend to be competitive.

In contrast, in a collectivist society, everyone is seen as a member of the group, and the group’s goals take precedence over individual goals. Consequently, people prioritize getting along with others.        

Countries on the continent, which sit side by side, have repeatedly engaged in conflicts to enlarge their territories. At various times in history, large territorial empires such as Macedonia, the Roman Empire, the Caliphate, and the Mongol Empire emerged in the Near East and Europe.

In Ancient China, various small states rose and fell over long periods, especially during the Spring and Autumn Period, the Warring States Period, and the Three Kingdoms Period before unification by the First Emperor of Qin.

After winning such wars, the victorious country often killed or enslaved the conquered people because they had different cultures and languages, and could potentially retaliate. This is similar to a chess rule where captured pieces cannot be reused, unlike in Japanese Shogi. This reflects the continental cultural tendency to view enemy soldiers as fundamentally different due to their race.    

After the discovery of the American continents by Columbus in 1492 and the subsequent “Age of Discovery,” European countries pursued a policy of expanding their economic zones by colonizing regions in Africa, the Americas, and Asia. They exported weapons and commodities to the colonized countries and imported agricultural products from the American continents, as well as slaves and gold from Africa. This so-called Triangle Trade thrived.

Then the Industrial Revolution took place in Britain. European countries began to produce most products efficiently and needed markets to sell them, so they urged many countries to open their doors to trade. Japan conceded to this forceful request. Ironically, after this, Japan made progress toward becoming a powerful country through the Meiji Restoration, the Sino-Japanese War, the Russo-Japanese War, and the World Wars.

Unlike island countries, continental countries often took tough measures like war, invasion, and colonization to expand their territories and promote trade.  

Cultural Aspects in Orient  

The Orient has a higher proportion of forested areas and more water-rich lands than the Occident, resulting in significant benefits, especially in terms of food. This has led to the development of a culture that emphasizes coexistence with nature. Eastern people tend to view natural disasters beyond human understanding, such as typhoons, earthquakes, and droughts, as “God’s work,” “God’s anger,” or a “curse.” The lifestyle in these regions has predominantly been settled and centered around agriculture, leading people to develop effective ways to coexist with nature rather than control it.

In Japan, a country reliant on rice cultivation, weather elements like the sun, rain, wind, and thunderstorms, which significantly affect the harvest, were considered gods. This animism led to the origin of Japan’s original religion, Shintoism. In Shinto society, older people were respected for their accumulated knowledge, leading to the development of the seniority-order system. With a consciousness of coexistence with nature and gods, shamanistic practices such as praying to gods, spirit possession, and being a medium emerged. Examples include Himiko of ancient Yamataikoku, Yuta in Okinawa, and Itako in the Tohoku districts. 

In the East, where nature is abundant, all things—whether human, animal, or plant—are seen as part of the natural world and interconnected. Additionally, gods and nature are often considered one and the same. As a result, many Eastern religions share the mystical belief that the ultimate goal is to achieve unity with nature or the divine. This idea is referred to as “Bonga-Ichinyo” in Brahmanism and Hinduism, where Brahman (Bon) represents the cosmic principle, and Atman (Ga) symbolizes individual existence. The belief centers on the unification of the cosmos and the individual, suggesting that a person must transcend the ego to experience spiritual ecstasy. This concept is akin to “Gedatu,” the attainment of enlightenment in Buddhism.

This monistic idea, expressed as “One is all, and all is one,” is found in the principle of yin and yang and in the Taoist pursuit of immortality in China, as well as in esoteric Buddhism and Shugendo (mountain ascetic practices) in Japan. This philosophy gained admiration in the West in the 20th century. Psychologist Carl Jung was deeply influenced by these ideas, and the “New Age” movement that spread in America and Britain was similarly inspired.  

Eastern medicine is based on the principle that disease is caused by imbalances and disorders of the body or mind and should primarily be treated by restoring balance to the whole body and enhancing the body’s natural healing abilities. It is considered ideal to address the root cause of the disorder as the first step in treatment. Practitioners believe that all organs, cells, and neurons are interconnected, and they treat not only the affected part of the body but also the underlying imbalance in the whole system. Examples of treatments include strengthening the body through acupuncture, qigong exercises, and “Seitai” chiropractic, and restoring balance by boosting immunity with Chinese medicine and a healthy diet. Eastern medicine aligns with certain concepts that Western medicine and science support, such as “Qi” (spiritual energy) and “Chakra” (energy centers in the body). These are fundamental elements in both “Eastern Medicine” in China and “Ayurveda” (the science of life) in India.

Most religions in the East, rich in natural environments, are polytheistic. What provides the blessings of nature is considered divine, and nature itself is seen as a manifestation of gods. Thus, many deities emerged, such as the gods of mountains and rivers, forming the foundation of polytheism. This belief system is known as “Forest Religion.”

In Japan, natural forces that sustain agricultural growth were deified, such as the sun becoming “Amaterasu” (the sun goddess) and wind and thunder being represented by “Fujin” (the god of wind) and “Raijin” (the god of thunder). Similarly, in Hinduism in India, natural phenomena were also deified, with gods such as Surya (the sun god), Indra (the god of thunder), Agni (the god of fire), and Varuna (the god of water). In ancient Chinese Taoism, the great master Lao Tzu taught that people should live simple and honest lives in accordance with the laws of nature. These examples illustrate that the concept of “Forest Religion,” which promotes coexistence with nature, is deeply rooted in various Eastern culture.  

Forest religion, Brahmanism, Hinduism, Taoism, and Shintoism, regardless of the language used to express them, share common views on life and death. A typical example is the concept of Rinne-Tenshō (reincarnation), which originated in Brahmanism. This belief holds that after death, the spirit leaves the body and is reincarnated into a new life form, which depends on the deeds of the previous life, or Karma. This idea was embraced by Buddhism and spread throughout China and Japan, becoming the foundation of the Asian view of life and death.

Japan also had a unique tradition of mountain worship, in which it was believed that after death, the spirit ascends the mountain, undergoes rituals for 49 days to calm its anger, and after 33 years, becomes a god responsible for caring for descendants. This belief merged with Buddhist ascetic practices during the syncretic period of Shintoism and Buddhism, leading to the development of the Yamabushi (mountain priests) and Shugensha (ascetic Buddhist monks).

In China, there was a strong belief that benefits must be gained during one’s lifetime. This is reflected in the Shenxian philosophy, which teaches that one can become immortal by becoming a Shenxian (immortal hermit). This pursuit of immortality was also exemplified by the First Emperor of Qin, who famously sought eternal life.

The Cultural Aspects of Western World  

In the Near East and Europe, where plants did not readily grow in many areas, nature was not viewed as an “aid” but rather as a “threat.” This perspective led people to see nature as an entity to be conquered and controlled. In the West, where natural disasters like earthquakes were less common and people often lived nomadic lifestyles centered on hunting or livestock farming, daily life was not as heavily shaped by nature’s forces. Consequently, human life, not nature, was seen as central, and nature was perceived as a resource or tool to enhance human comfort.

The Bible, the holy book of Christianity, the dominant religion in the Western world, presents views on the relationship between humans and nature, such as the idea that “Man is the ruler and steward of non-human creation, and nature is given by God for human use.” This perspective contrasts sharply with Eastern beliefs, where nature itself is often viewed as divine. In the West, dense forests have historically been seen as dangerous places inhabited by evil forces, to be avoided, whereas in the East, forests are considered sacred, as they are thought to house gods and spirits, making them places of worship. There were once extensive forested areas in the West; however, during the Age of Discovery, which began in Western Europe, the demand for large ships (each requiring around 2,000 trees over 100 years old) led to widespread deforestation. Today, forest cover in Western Europe stands at about 30 percent, compared to Japan’s 68 percent, reflecting a key cultural difference between the West and East.

The philosophy of controlling nature, which gained momentum through Luther’s Protestant Reformation in Germany in the 16th century, laid the foundation for the development of “science” that enabled humans to manipulate the natural world with technology. This led to enormous progress, from circumnavigating the globe, disproving the Ptolemaic Theory, and discovering gravity, to the inventions of electricity, airplanes, nuclear weapons, and the moon landing.  

The Near East and Europe are not as rich in forests and water resources as the East, so securing food and shelter was essential for survival. A legend recorded in the holy book of Judaism describes how the people of Israel migrated to Egypt, were later led by Moses out of Egypt, wandered in the desert for forty years, and then returned to Israel. Living in the harsh desert environment shaped a fundamental custom of competing for resources and moving in search of better conditions, such as an oasis. The scarcity of food, water, and land led people to place high value on acquiring and possessing these necessities, reinforcing a mindset that strengthened materialistic values. In the desert, life-or-death decisions led people to set clear standards, often viewing things as either right or wrong—thus, “dualism” emerged from this environment.

紀元前17世紀アブラハム、イサク、ヤコブ(ユダヤ民族の族長)がイスラエルの地に定住し、唯一神ヤハウェの信仰を始める。飢饉により、イスラエルの民はエジプトへの移住を余儀なくされる。
紀元前13世紀頃出エジプト:イスラエルの民はモーセに率いられてエジプトを脱出、シナイ砂漠を40年間流浪し、その間にシナイ山で十戒などのトーラー(モーセ五書)を授かる。
紀元前12世紀頃イスラエル民族がイスラエルの地に定住。
紀元前1020年頃ユダヤの王政が始まる(初代王:サウル)。

Western medicine is a modern treatment system based on scientific principles. Doctors view the physical body through a materialist perspective, diagnosing conditions by examining each body part and organ and treating affected areas through surgery or medication. This approach is particularly suited to surgical operations, as doctors can remove damaged cells, viruses, or organs detected by advanced devices, such as microscopes and X-rays, that reveal details beyond human eyesight. Compared to Eastern medicine, which aims to restore balance in “Ki” (mind/spirit) and address root causes, Western medicine often follows a “symptomatic therapy” approach, targeting specific symptoms—such as headache medication for colds or stomach medicine for indigestion. Generally, Eastern medicine is considered better for prevention, while Western medicine excels in direct treatment.

Desert regions are harsh environments where even slight carelessness or misjudgment can lead to death. In these areas, Nature or God is often seen not as a provider but as a force that expels or punishes those who break the rules. This perspective is sometimes referred to as “Desert Religion” and applies to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. These three major religions are monotheistic, each believing in a single, absolute, omnipotent God—known as Yahweh or Allah—who created the world and humanity. Monotheism, unlike polytheism, tends to be less accepting of other religions or deities, often leading to conflict. Within each of these three religions, interpretations of “the Savior” in their holy books vary, leading historically to persecution, terrorism, and ongoing tensions.

The view of life and death among desert cultures can be summarized as a belief in “Heaven and Hell.” The oldest desert religion, Zoroastrianism, teaches that good and evil fight against each other in the world, and humans participate in this battle. On Judgment Day, after death, people are judged based on their actions in life and are sent to either Heaven or Hell. Building on this view, Christianity introduced religious practices like confession or the sale of indulgences in the church to atone for sins committed during one’s lifetime.

ゾロアスター教は、世界を善悪という2つの側面で考える二元論に基づいた信仰をもつ、世界最古の宗教です。 善神アフラ・マズダが悪魔アンラ・マンユを打倒し、理想の世界が訪れるという教えを信仰しています。 日本ではほとんど馴染みがないゾロアスター教ですが、現在はイランで小規模な信徒教団によって信仰されているようです。

Cultural Differences between Japan and the West

In her book The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, American anthropologist Ruth Benedict describes the contrast between the Guilt Culture of the West and the Shame Culture of Japan. In the West, where Christianity predominates, people are expected to follow religious precepts that dictate codes of conduct, and when they break these precepts, they feel guilty. In Christianity, God is often viewed as a figure who may punish wrongdoing, and to avoid punishment, people regulate their behavior and thoughts according to religious teachings.

In contrast, Japan’s indigenous religion, Shintoism, has no strict precepts, and deities—often natural elements—are worshiped. In Japan, multiple deities are believed to exist to offer blessings rather than punishment. In Japan, punishment traditionally took the form of “Haji,” or shame. In the past, Japanese people often saw themselves as part of a village unit, placing a high value on group harmony. Social scrutiny, or the watchful eyes of the community, served as a form of punishment. This social punishment is known as “Haji” in Japanese, meaning “shame” in English.

In the West, behavior is guided by a personal awareness of sin, faith, and conscience, while in Japan, actions are shaped by a sense of belonging to a community, with individuals expected to consider social norms and others’ feelings. “Haji” conveys a feeling of shame but also includes the embarrassment of receiving too much attention. Japanese people may feel “Haji” even when praised publicly. Along with adhering to shared social values, the tendency to avoid standing out contributes to the characteristic shyness of Japanese culture.

ベネディクトの用いた「恥の文化」と いう名称に、日本人側の、人に笑われないよう、人様に恥ずかしくな いように振舞わなければならない、という伝統的な倫理観や美意識が 結びつき、またを知り廉恥心ある国民性との自負が、あるいは自己 主張や自己アピールが苦手で照れ屋や恥ずかしがり屋の多い、控えめ な日本人との自覚やら自省やら……

Shintoism, Buddhism, and Taoism have strongly influenced Japanese aesthetics, making them distinct from Western aesthetics. One central aspect of Japanese aesthetics is “Wabi-Sabi,” as discussed in the previous chapter. In contrast to the opulence of castles and palaces in China and Western countries, Japanese design emphasizes simplicity and refinement, removing unnecessary elements and maximizing the use of empty space. This contrast is evident when comparing a Western afternoon tea room with “Taian,” a tea room designed by the tea ceremony master Sen-no-Rikyu.

 Every aspect of the Japanese tea room holds significance rooted in Japan’s high-context culture. The entrance door of “Tai-an,” called the “Nijiri-guchi” (or “crawling-in door”), is very small. Even samurai had to remove their katana swords and lower their heads to enter, symbolizing that everyone is equal before the tea pot. The room measures four and a half tatami mats in size. Its compact design allows the host to build intimacy with guests and create a space for confidential conversation.

In this respect, there are cultural differences: Chinese aesthetics emphasize grandeur, Western aesthetics value perfection and order, and Japanese aesthetics prioritize simplicity and mindfulness.

In Western gardens, trees, lawns, and other elements are typically arranged symmetrically, emphasizing artificiality that implies human control over nature. In contrast, Japanese gardens, rooted in aesthetics that value change and harmony, are designed asymmetrically, from the overall layout down to individual trees and even moss. These gardens are crafted to resemble natural landscapes and showcase different seasonal beauty. In the garden, a pond is often placed at the center, with lower elements in the front and taller ones at the back. This arrangement creates a three-dimensional view, similar to the way food is arranged on a plate in Japanese cuisine.

Japanese aesthetics also emphasize the use of odd numbers over even and curved lines over straight. These elements contribute to the asymmetry of the gardens. These features are also reflected in Japanese bonsai, painting, architecture, and other art forms.

日本と中国では、偶数と奇数の好みが異なります。 日本では、1、3、5、7といった 奇数が縁起がいいといわれています。 理由として、陰陽道では奇数が「陽」を示し、偶数 が「陰」を示すと考えられているからです。

宴会や一大イベントなどの手締めは「三本締め」や「一本締め」、子供の成長を祝うのは「七五三」など、現在でも生活に根ざした様々な場面で「奇数」が登場する

Differences in natural surroundings and cultural beliefs lead to contrasting approaches in construction. A major difference is the frequency of earthquakes. In Japan, where earthquakes are frequent, buildings are typically constructed of wood to provide flexibility during seismic events. Additionally, wood is light, so if a building collapses, there is a lower risk of fatal injuries from being crushed. Damaged wood can also be easily removed and repurposed for rebuilding.

To absorb earthquake impact, a specialized technique—wooden frameworks without metallic nails or bolts—was developed in Japan before the Heian period (794-1192). Horyuji Temple in Nara, the world’s oldest wooden structure, built over 1300 years ago, was constructed using this technique. This design eliminates concerns about loosened nails or bolts. All pieces of wood are interlocked, which disperses the earthquake’s shaking impact, reducing the risk of collapse. This nail-free design also makes it easier to replace deteriorated or damaged parts by simply removing them. This structure is also easy to dismantle, move, and reconstruct. In a sense, this technique is eco-friendly and sustainable. The traditional kaya-thatched roof (with “kaya” meaning straw or reeds) can be long-lasting with proper maintenance. The roof, which is smoked over time by the irori hearth inside the house, effectively resists decay and protects against insects. Wood construction, with its absorbency and flexibility, suits Japan’s large seasonal temperature changes and high humidity.

In the West, where earthquakes are far less common than in Japan, buildings are primarily constructed with bricks instead of wood. In Europe, where temperatures are generally lower, bricks help retain warmth in houses. Additionally, countries in Europe are more easily invaded by neighboring nations due to shared borders, making bricks suitable for defense. With few earthquakes, Westerners don’t need to rebuild their homes often, so they construct thick walls with multiple layers of bricks, fully isolating the interior with just a door for access. Their houses resemble closed shelters. In contrast, Japanese houses generally feature Amado (rain shutters), Shoji (sliding doors), and Fusuma (paper sliding doors), which can be easily moved to create large open spaces. This design allows airflow to reduce humidity. Historically, most resources and architectural expertise were devoted to constructing cathedrals in Europe and shrines and temples in Japan. European cathedrals are notable for their elaborate designs and decorative elements, while Japanese shrines and temples are constructed to harmonize with nature, often located near natural settings like forests and rivers and incorporating gardens. A prominent example of this harmony with nature is Itsukushima Shrine. Its main pavilion, built along the seashore, is designed to allow seawater to flow beneath it during high tide.  

日本の住宅は木造が一般的なのに対して、ヨーロッパの家はレンガや石を積み上げて建てられる住宅が多くみられます。 ヨーロッパでは古代から石材が建物の素材として使われてきた歴史があり、寒い地域では室内の熱を外に逃がさない石やレンガ造りの家が好まれたと言われています

日本家屋は一つの部屋で食事をしたりくつろいだり、お客様を通したりと一つの部屋を色々な目的で多用します。 一方で洋風のは、食事の部屋、くつろぐ部屋と明確に分けていることが多いです。