Introduction
Are you familiar with the term “Galapagosization“? This term originates from the unique evolutionary process seen in the Galapagos Islands of Ecuador, South America, where plants and animals evolved in isolation, adapting in ways unlike anywhere else in the world. Similarly, Japan’s unique geographic location has led to the creation of many “Galapagosized” products.
One of the most well-known examples is Japanese flip phones, often referred to as “Galakei”—a shortened version of “Galapagos Keitai,” or mobile phone. Before smartphones became widespread globally, Japanese flip phones with multiple functions were extremely popular. They featured high-resolution cameras, one-segment TV, digital wallets, and infrared communication. Meanwhile, in other countries, mobile phones were viewed as simple communication tools, sufficient for basic functions like sending and receiving messages.
As a result, these advanced Japanese phones did not sell well outside Japan, and they remained popular primarily within the country. Products like these, developed for a narrow, niche market, are known as “Galapagosized goods.” This term often implies a negative connotation, suggesting that although these products are highly functional, they may not meet the practical demands or cultural expectations of a broader international audience.
Beyond goods, the concept of Galapagosization can also be seen in aspects like Japanese beliefs and aesthetics. Concepts like “Wabi-Sabi” and “Iki,” discussed in Chapter 4, can be seen as uniquely Japanese forms of Galapagosization. What religions did these concepts come from? In this chapter, we will discuss Japanese religious views.
The two major religions in Japan, Shintoism and Buddhism, have long histories and deep philosophies that are difficult to fully grasp. In Japan, people often have a unique blend of religious views, taking a newborn to a Shinto shrine for blessings, holding wedding ceremonies in a Christian church, celebrating Christmas, and having funerals at Buddhist temples. Additionally, many people think they have no religion or are unsure which religion their family follows.
As a result, if asked to describe their religion, many are unsure of how to respond. Although many Japanese may feel they have no personal religion, this does not mean that religion has no influence on their lives. These religious traditions are so deeply rooted in Japanese cultural life that people may not easily notice their impact.
Shintoism, Rooted in Japan in Ancient Times
Shintoism and Nature
Japan, an island nation in East Asia, has its own indigenous religion, Shintoism. Japan’s natural environment, with forested areas covering two-thirds of the land and abundant hot springs and freshwater springs, is rich in natural resources compared to other regions of the world. During the Yayoi period (9th century BC to 3rd century BC), the lifestyle on Honshu Island shifted to one based on agriculture.
Later, in the 6th century, Buddhism was introduced to Japan, and from that time until the Meiji Restoration, Buddhist influence encouraged a plant-based diet. People relied primarily on agriculture and fishing for sustenance. Both agriculture and fishing are highly dependent on environmental conditions, which makes food security vulnerable to natural disasters. For example, agricultural harvests can be severely reduced by heavy rain, typhoons, and floods, while fishing becomes impossible during rough seas. Moreover, the balance of rainy and sunny days is crucial for crop growth, making climate a key factor for a stable livelihood.
Shintoism has an aspect of animism, similar to the religions of Native Americans and Australian Aborigines. It suggests that objects like rocks and trees are inhabited by spirits. Although Shintoism was influenced by Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism as it developed into its present form, its animistic tendencies were likely strongest during the Jomon period, when it was not influenced by other belief systems. This early form of Shintoism is called “Old Shinto.”
In the 6th century, when Buddhism was first introduced to Japan, the syncretism of Shinto and Buddhism began to emerge. Following the compilation of the Kojiki (“Records of Ancient Matters”), Shinto was formalized primarily through Japanese mythology. Then, during the Meiji Reformation, in pursuit of westernization, Japan adopted elements of monotheism seen in Western religions and established Shinto as the state religion. This marked the end of the Shinto-Buddhist syncretism period.
Policies like the “Order Separating Buddhism and Shintoism” and the “Anti-Buddhist Movement” officially separated Shinto and Buddhism as distinct religions, leading to the abolishment of many Buddhist temples and statues. At the same time, the Meiji government reorganized Shinto, standardizing aspects like the prayer ritual of “Two bows, two claps, one bow,” elevating the Goddess Amaterasu as the highest deity, and promoting the worship of emperors as human gods. This transition created what is now known as National Shinto.
Japan went through two World Wars and was defeated in the Second World War. After the war, the occupying authority, the General Headquarters (GHQ), believed that strong Shinto reverence for the emperor (Tenno) contributed to Japan’s rapid military expansion as it sought to match the Western powers. During the war, it was impactful for American soldiers to see young Japanese men in their teens and twenties fighting fearlessly for their country and the emperor.
To neutralize this perceived threat, the GHQ abolished Shinto’s position as the state religion and implemented policies to separate Shinto from politics. One of these policies involved declaring the emperor (Tenno) as human rather than divine. Today, the emperor is defined in Japan’s postwar Constitution as a symbol of the Japanese people, and Shintoism has shifted to a folk religion.
Features of Shintoism
In Shinto, the altar enshrining a deity is called a “Jinja” (shrine). Shinto shrines have two distinctive features. The first is the Torii gate at the entrance. With a few exceptions, a Torii gate marks the entrance, followed by the shrine itself. The second feature is the absence of holy icons for worship, unlike the materialized or personified representations found in Christianity and Buddhism. Instead, a pair of Komainu statues—guardian lion-dogs—are placed to prevent evil from entering the shrine grounds. The Komainu guard the shrine with their harmonized, silent presence.
In addition to the Komainu, statues of animals associated with specific shrines, such as foxes, oxen, dragons, monkeys, horses, rabbits, and others, are often placed around the grounds. Each animal has its own significance. For example, the Fushimi Inari Shrine in Kyoto has fox statues. Inari shrines are dedicated to agricultural prosperity, and foxes are believed to be divine messengers who help crops thrive by catching and eating rodents. In shrines devoted to prayers for fertility or safe childbirth, monkey statues are common because monkeys have large families and are attentive to their young. At Tenman shrines, which honor the deity of learning, ox statues are placed, as the ox is considered a symbol of intelligence. Additionally, the Japanese language has numerous expressions.
Shinto’s Thoughts and Concepts Rooted in Japan
1 Everything is Possessed by a Spirit or Deity
Shinto holds that there are “eight million” deities in Japan, symbolizing a vast number. Shintoism is polytheistic, and people believe that everything possesses a spirit or deity. As a result, they worship not only human-like gods but also natural elements such as mountains, rivers, seas, and tall trees, as well as objects like swords and mirrors. These sacred entities are called “Goshinboku” (holy tree), “Goshintai” (sacred object), or other similar terms. Additionally, some people become deities after they die. For example, Nikko Toshogu Shrine enshrines Tokugawa Ieyasu as the main deity, Toyotomi Hideyoshi as the left deity, and Minamoto no Yoritomo as the right deity. These figures were great samurai heroes.
祭神について、「今日では東照宮の主祭神は徳川家康であり、配祀神として、左神（神前に向かって右）豊臣秀吉、右神（神前に向かって左）源頼朝が祀られている。 これは明治維新後祭神の変更があって後のことである。 維新以前は、左神は山王神、右神は摩多羅神であった。
Eastern polytheistic religions have generally been tolerant of other beliefs, often absorbing gods and rituals from different traditions. Japan is no exception. In the 6th century, Chinese Confucianism and Taoism, along with Indian Buddhism, arrived in Japan. Japanese Shinto incorporated gods from these religions, adding them to the “eight million deities.” Shintoism became intertwined with other religions, leading to a unique syncretism with Buddhism.
神の家系図、詳細はここ、クリック
A key concept that expresses this religious blending is “Honji Suijaku Setsu” (the theory of original prototype and local manifestation). This theory teaches that Shinto deities are alternate forms of Buddhist deities, suggesting that Shinto and Buddhist gods are essentially the same. For example, the Shinto sun goddess Amaterasu is considered to be the same as the Buddhist deity Dainichi Nyorai (Mahavairocana), while Hachiman, enshrined in Hachiman shrines, is identified with Amida Nyorai (Amitabha Tathagata).
Among the seven lucky gods, Ebisu is a Japanese deity, but Daikokuten, Bishamonten, and Benzaiten originated in India, while Fukurokuju, Juroujin, and Hotei were Chinese deities or monks. These seven gods, though from diverse origins, are depicted together on the same boat, symbolizing unity.
Unlike religions that prescribe prohibitions, Shinto has no strict precepts such as “Do not do this,” as found in the holy texts of Christianity and Buddhism. Instead, it considers “Kegare” (impurity) to be undesirable. Kegare is understood as a negative state of “Ki.” The original Chinese character for “Ki” is “氣”: the upper part, “气,” represents human breath, power, life, and energy, while the lower part, “米,” symbolizes the spread of these qualities in all directions. The concept of “Ki” is not unique to Japan; it also appears in other Eastern traditions, such as Prana in Hinduism, Qigong and Tai Chi in Chinese practices, and in yoga, Oriental medicine, Ayurveda, and other philosophies.
Japanese people, who instinctively learn the Shinto teaching of avoiding kegare (impurity) and dirtiness, have long integrated these Shinto values into daily life, both visibly and invisibly. They strive to keep their spirits clean, which has led to customs such as keeping bathrooms at home spotless, removing shoes at the entrance, and bathing daily. Foreigners often recognize the Japanese as people who value cleanliness, a trait rooted in Shinto teachings.
Other Eastern philosophies reflect the concept of kegare. For example, the Buddhist idea of ego or self is closely related to kegare. Buddhism has the concept of Rokkon Shōjō (six-root purity), which teaches that self-interest, earthly desires, and ambivalence arise from impurity in the “six roots” (the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind). These negative tendencies can be cleansed through rituals and meditation.
Chinese Feng Shui advises keeping areas like sinks and bathrooms clean, as they tend to collect negative ki (energy). An ancient Chinese text, The Lüshi Chunqiu, says, “Flowing water never becomes dirty,” emphasizing the importance of keeping the mind and body as pure as running water.
What happens when kegare is left unaddressed? The effects might look like this: metal becomes oxidized and rusty, uncleaned spaces gather dust, and fruits or vegetables with cuts may rot. In extreme cases, kegare in the body or mind can cause a profound transformation. This idea appears in Studio Ghibli’s animated films. For instance, in Princess Mononoke, a boar god becomes a demon due to the hatred of humans. In Spirited Away, there is a scene in which a god covered in sludge takes a bath, washing away the filth to reveal its original form as a dragon.
Before the advent of science, such decay and corruption were attributed to kegare rather than viruses. Another concept, yaku (厄, or misfortune), is seen in Japanese customs like yaku-doshi (unlucky year), yaku-otoshi (warding off misfortune), and yaku-barai (praying to repel misfortune). Originally, yaku referred to sins or impurities accumulated over one’s life. Yaku-doshi is believed to be a year in which one’s impurities build up, attracting misfortune. During yaku-doshi, people often visit shrines to be purified through prayers. These customs reveal how deeply Shinto concepts of kegare and yaku are rooted in the mindset of modern Japanese people.
2 Musuhi
In Shinto, the power to create and produce things is called “Musuhi,” regarded as a sacred force. The kanji for “Musuhi” is “産霊,” where “産” means “to produce,” and “霊” signifies “the mystical operation of the spirit.” All forms of creation, whether it is the craftsmanship of making objects or the act of a woman giving birth, are considered profoundly sacred. Additionally, Musuhi is also written as “結び” in kanji and katakana, meaning “connecting everything to create something new.” In this sense, the combination of hydrogen and oxygen to form water exemplifies Musuhi, as does the union of a man and woman to create a child. As people and families continually connect, this progression led to increasingly complex societal units—from families to villages, towns, and eventually nations. The concept of Musuhi has profoundly influenced the Japanese tradition of honoring family ancestors.
Musuhi can be seen in various aspects of Japanese culture. The Japanese words “息子 musuko” (son) and “娘 musume” (daughter) are derived from Musuhi. The wedding ceremony, which connects two families, is sometimes called “Chigiri-wo-Musubu” (the act of joining). Meeting someone is also referred to as “Musubi.” Unlike Western clothing, which is typically tailored to fit the body and uses buttons as fasteners, Japanese kimono requires a technique called “Ohashori” to adjust its length and size using fabric folds. This tradition also reflects the influence of Musuhi. In the popular animated film Your Name, there is a scene where Mitsuha’s grandmother discusses Musuhi. Additionally, the lyrics of the well-known song “Ito (Thread)” by Miyuki Nakajima express this theme of connection: “The warp thread is you, and the weft thread is me. Together, the woven cloth may keep someone warm.” The spirit of Shinto Musuhi can be seen here.
Oriental Impurity and Occidental Sin
The concepts of “kegare” (impurity) in Japan and “sin” in Western thought are distinct. Kegare refers to impurity that can be removed through purification rituals, restoring the body and spirit to their original, pure state. Similarly, Buddhism teaches the principle of “Shitsuu-Bussyo,” which holds that everyone has an inherently innocent mind capable of reaching the Buddha state (enlightened spirit). This is also a concept of purification. In the West, particularly in monotheistic traditions, it is often believed that the world is divided into two opposing forces: good and evil. In Hollywood films, a common storyline is the hero’s triumph over the villain, where one represents good and the other represents evil, a theme reflective of monotheistic beliefs. On the other hand, in the popular Japanese manga Dragon Ball, characters like “Piccolo” and “Vegeta” initially appear as villains but later become allies of the heroes after intense battles. Piccolo saves the main character Son Goku’s son, and Vegeta, who once sought to conquer Earth, joins forces with Son Goku to protect the planet against Freeza. This type of story is typical in Japan. There is often debate about whether human nature is inherently good or bad, but this dichotomy stems from the Western concept that people can be judged as either good or bad. In Eastern thought, it is generally believed that people are good when in a state of purity and become misguided in a state of impurity or selfishness. Taoism, for example, teaches that human nature contains both Yang (positive) and Yin (negative) elements. Eastern philosophies value the importance of balancing these constantly changing forces. Practices such as yoga, meditation, and Tai Chi provide ways to cultivate this balance.
Shinto and Common Beliefs with Animism Worldwide
Animism, known as Seirei-Shinko (belief in spirits) in Japanese, is the belief in worshiping the spirits present in nature as sacred beings. This belief is reflected in Studio Ghibli films. In My Neighbor Totoro, only children can see Totoro and Makkuro-Kurosuke. Similarly, in Princess Mononoke, Kodama and Daidarabotchi inhabit the deep forests.
Other examples of animism in the world include Native Americans in the United States and Indigenous Australians. Cultures that believe in animism emphasize the importance of seeing humans as part of nature and striving for coexistence and harmony with it. To Western explorers during the Age of Discovery, the lifestyles and spirituality of Native Americans and Indigenous Australians appeared “uncivilized” because they were different. After this period, these groups suffered through tragic eras of invasion, enslavement, and colonization. They did not practice land ownership, viewing the land as a gift from the gods, something to live on rather than possess. The United States, taking advantage of Native Americans’ beliefs, deprived them of their land through unequal and forced treaties. Similarly, the British took Indigenous Australians’ land, justifying it by claiming they had no formal concept of ownership and deciding it should belong to Queen Victoria.
The animistic beliefs of Native Americans were powerfully expressed in a letter to President Franklin Pierce, stating, “How can the sky and land be sold? Plants, deserts, even the singing of insects are sacred, holy things—not possessions—because we are part of the earth, and the earth is part of us.”
Chief Seattle's Letter
"The President in Washington sends word that he wishes to buy our land. But how can you buy or sell the sky? the land? The idea is strange to us. If we do not own the freshness of the air and the sparkle of the water, how can you buy them?Every part of the earth is sacred to my people. Every shining pine needle, every sandy shore, every mist in the dark woods, every meadow, every humming insect. All are holy in the memory and experience of my people.We know the sap which courses through the trees as we know the blood that courses through our veins. We are part of the earth and it is part of us. The perfumed flowers are our sisters. The bear, the deer, the great eagle, these are our brothers. The rocky crests, the dew in the meadow, the body heat of the pony, and man all belong to the same family.The shining water that moves in the streams and rivers is not just water, but the blood of our ancestors. If we sell you our land, you must remember that it is sacred. Each glossy reflection in the clear waters of the lakes tells of events and memories in the life of my people. The water's murmur is the voice of my father's father.The rivers are our brothers. They quench our thirst. They carry our canoes and feed our children. So you must give the rivers the kindness that you would give any brother.If we sell you our land, remember that the air is precious to us, that the air shares its spirit with all the life that it supports. The wind that gave our grandfather his first breath also received his last sigh. The wind also gives our children the spirit of life. So if we sell our land, you must keep it apart and sacred, as a place where man can go to taste the wind that is sweetened by the meadow flowers.Will you teach your children what we have taught our children? That the earth is our mother? What befalls the earth befalls all the sons of the earth.This we know: the earth does not belong to man, man belongs to the earth. All things are connected like the blood that unites us all. Man did not weave the web of life, he is merely a strand in it. Whatever he does to the web, he does to himself.One thing we know: our God is also your God. The earth is precious to him and to harm the earth is to heap contempt on its creator.Your destiny is a mystery to us. What will happen when the buffalo are all slaughtered? The wild horses tamed? What will happen when the secret corners of the forest are heavy with the scent of many men and the view of the ripe hills is blotted with talking wires? Where will the thicket be? Gone! Where will the eagle be? Gone! And what is to say goodbye to the swift pony and then hunt? The end of living and the beginning of survival.When the last red man has vanished with this wilderness, and his memory is only the shadow of a cloud moving across the prairie, will these shores and forests still be here? Will there be any of the spirit of my people left?We love this earth as a newborn loves its mother's heartbeat. So, if we sell you our land, love it as we have loved it. Care for it, as we have cared for it. Hold in your mind the memory of the land as it is when you receive it. Preserve the land for all children, and love it, as God loves us.As we are part of the land, you too are part of the land. This earth is precious to us. It is also precious to you.One thing we know - there is only one God. No man, be he Red man or White man, can be apart. We ARE all brothers after all."
Shinto Practices and How to Enjoy Them
Japan once experienced a period of Shinto-Buddhist syncretism, but today, the practices for prayer are distinct. Until the end of the Edo period, these practices were not formally regulated or separated. In the mid-19th century, the Meiji government issued the “Order to Separate Buddhism and Shinto,” officially distinguishing Shinto from Buddhism. Since then, people in Buddhist temples traditionally pray with their hands together, while in Shinto shrines, they “bow twice, clap twice, and bow once.“
What You Should Do Before Entering Shrines
The Torii gate at the entrance of the shrine is said to mark the boundary between the outer world inhabited by people (Zokukai, or secular world) and the realm of deities (Seiiki, or sanctuary). Therefore, before passing under the gate, people are expected to bow as a greeting when entering Seiiki. The center path through the gate is reserved for deities, so visitors should avoid walking down the middle.
Just Remember How to Pray at Shrines!
Before approaching the main pavilion, you must purify yourself by washing your hands and mouth at the Chozuya (purification trough). In the Edo period, some shrines required visitors to purify themselves by soaking in a river. The key is to use only one scoop of water for all steps.
The prayer procedure is as follows:
1. Place some money into the offering box in front.
2. If there is a bell in front of the box, shake the rope to ring it. The soft sound of the bell, which helps people feel at ease, is believed to have the power to drive away evil, so bells are often used in Shinto rituals.
3. After ringing the bell, follow these steps: bow twice, clap twice, and bow once.
For offerings, a five-yen coin is considered ideal for praying. This is because the Japanese word for “five yen” (Goen) sounds the same as a word meaning “destiny” or “good relationship.” The coin also has a hole in the center, symbolizing clarity and openness.
The final clap is done with hands together in prayer. There is no strict rule for prayer content, but it is preferable to focus on a single wish and choose an altruistic intention rather than a personal one. Above all, you should feel grateful for the opportunity to pray, for being able to do so without difficulty, or simply for being alive in that moment.
Inori (prayer) can also be understood as an expression of intention. Therefore, it might be best to silently declare your goal or intention to the deity and ask for their assistance.
In some shrines, prayer words are displayed on the offering box, and visitors are encouraged to recite these words instead of praying silently. These words are meant to purify impurities, expressing: “Please remove my sins and impurities, and protect my life.”
The Basic Structure of Shinto Design
Some claim that the entire shrine design symbolizes the journey of a baby being born. The shape of the Torii gate, with two tall pillars and two horizontal bars at the top, resembles a woman’s legs. The approach path represents the birth canal, and the main pavilion symbolizes the womb. Thus, visitors may have a symbolic experience of returning to an innocent state before birth.
As you move from the Torii gate to the main pavilion, passing through the purification trough, your body becomes increasingly purified until you offer a prayer to the Goshintai (sacred object), which is often a mirror. In the word Kagami (mirror), removing “ga” (self) leaves “kami” (god). In prayer, you can attain an innocent self, free of ego, like a newborn baby, allowing your reflection in the mirror to merge symbolically with the divine.
Classification of Shinto and its Effects
According to their history and rank, Shinto shrines are divided into groups such as Jinja, Jingu, Dai-Jingu, Taisha, Miya, and others. Each shrine enshrines its own deity or deities, who are categorized as follows:
1 Deities that appear in the Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters) and Nihon Shoki (Chronicles of Japan), such as Izanagi, Izanami, Amaterasu, Susanoo, and Ookuninushi.
2 Deities not mentioned in the Kojiki or Nihon Shoki, such as Hachiman, Seoritsu-hime, and the dragon god.
3 Historical figures who contributed to Japan’s progress, such as Tokugawa Ieyasu, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Sugawara Michizane.
In addition, there are many sects of Shinto, such as Ise, Izumo, Inari, and Hachiman. The primary reason for visiting a shrine is Gorieki (divine benefit), a blessing given by the enshrined deity through their unique powers. Each deity has unique powers, such as bringing good luck in gambling, success in exams, safe childbirth, or career advancement, so you should choose a shrine according to the blessing you seek.
Today, it is very popular to keep a record in a Goshuincho (seal book) as proof of shrine visits.
| 社号 | 詳細 | 格式 |
| 神宮 | 皇室とゆかりの深い由緒ある神社につけられる。 | とても高い |
| 神宮と呼ばれる基準としては、皇室の祖先神を祀っているかどうかです。ただし、「神宮」とだけ言うと、伊勢神宮のことを指します。「伊勢神宮」は通称で「神宮」が正式な名称です。 | ||
| 宮 | 特別の理由を認められた神社につけられます。 天皇や皇室にまつわる人物を祀っている神社です。 | 高い |
| 大神宮 | 「大神宮」は伊勢神宮の出張機関というべき、東京大神宮の特別な社号 | |
| 大社 | 地域信仰の中核をなす大きな神社を指す社号 | 高い |
| 元々、国譲りを行なった大国主命を祀る出雲大社のみにしか付かない称号でしたが、明治以降は奈良の春日大社や長野の諏訪大社など全国から崇敬を集める格式の高い神社で使われるようになりました。規模の大きい神社です。 | ||
| 神社 | 最も一般的な神社。 | |
| 社 | 「神社」の略称。比較的小さな神社の社号。 大きな神社から御祭神を勧請した神社に用いられます。 |
神社の種類とその数、ここをクリック ゆる歴史散歩会HP
History of Shinto and Tenno Family
Tenno Belief
According to the Kojiki, the Japanese imperial system began about 2,600 years ago. The first emperor was Jinmu, a fifth-generation descendant of the Sun Goddess Amaterasu. His coronation ceremony was held on February 11, now celebrated as a national holiday. Since Amaterasu is considered the ancestor of the imperial family, its members were seen as “descendants with divine blood,” and the emperor was regarded as a living god, as described in the Manyoshu (Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves) from the Nara period (8th century).
At the end of the Edo period, Japan was politically divided into two groups: the Kaikaku group (advocating for opening the country) and the Sonno-Joi group (advocating for reverence of the emperor and expulsion of foreigners). In 1867, the Edo shogunate returned sovereignty to the imperial family in an event called the Taisei Hokan. From this time, Japan adopted State Shinto, with the emperor as a central figure in national religion, and emperors were revered as living gods until the end of World War II. After Japan’s defeat in the war, the emperor publicly renounced his divine status, and the Japanese people have since developed a new religious consciousness.
The Origin of the Tenno Family
During the Jomon period (14,000 BC to 300 BC), agricultural practices spread, and people began to settle in one place. This shift led to the formation of villages and communities, which experienced cycles of conflict and unification until “Gozoku” (powerful families) emerged across Japan. In 645, following the Taika Reform, one family unified all the Gozoku to establish a centralized state called the Yamato government, with its leader assuming the title “Ookimi” (great king). Ootomi-no-Oji, the prince of Ookimi, secured the throne after an inter-family conflict known as the Jinshin War and changed the title from Ookimi to Tenno.
The History of the Tenno Family
The best-selling book The History of Japan, published in 1772 by German writer Engelbert Kaempfer, stated, “The Tenno family dates back to 630 BC and has lasted to the present. Its members are descendants of Amaterasu, the founding deity of Japan, and the eldest sons have inherited the throne over 114 generations.” This suggests that during the Edo period, the stories of the Kojiki were regarded as the authoritative history of Japan and the imperial family and were introduced to foreign countries.
As a side note, different terms are used to refer to a nation’s supreme leader. Tenno is classified as a king. The monarchy system emphasizes family lineage and blood relations, selecting an heir from among sons by blood, typically the eldest, a tradition that defines hereditary monarchy. Japan’s Tenno system is monarchical, with the current Tenno being the 126th generation since the first emperor, Jinmu. An emperor, in contrast, is often a ruler who ascends to power not by bloodline but by personal achievements. In Europe, dating back to the Roman Empire, rulers sometimes adopted capable men into the family, enabling them to inherit the throne. Others, like Napoleon, seized sovereignty through a coup d’état.
Chinese dynasties, however, follow a monarchy rooted in the concept of Tenshi (天子), or “Son of Heaven.” It is believed that a man blessed with divine virtue from Heaven can rule. This virtue can pass from one ruler to another by the will of Heaven. The leader of a victorious group could declare himself Tenshi, signifying the beginning of a new dynasty. Often, the defeated group was annihilated, and the victors took over the rule of the country.
天皇の系図、ここをクリック 宮内庁
Kojiki, the Tales of Ancient History
The oldest existing history book in Japan is the Kojiki, which compiled and organized tales and myths from across Japan in 712, the year it was completed. The Kojiki is made up of three parts: (1) the creation of heaven and the descent of the Sun Goddess’s grandson to earth; (2) the Eastern Campaign of Jinmu, beginning in Takachiho and ending with the founding of Nara; and (3) the territorial expansion by Yamatotakeru over the Kanto and Tohoku regions, as well as the earliest tales of the Tenno family. The Kojiki concludes that Kamuyamatoiwarehiko, who successfully completed the eastern conquest, became the first Tenno, Emperor Jinmu, establishing his family as the rightful successors of the gods.
天地開闢に始まる神代の物語を記した上巻、神武天皇から応神天皇に至る中巻、仁徳天皇から推古天皇に至る下巻の3巻から成り、建国の由来と歴代の出来事や物語が記されています
天武天皇（同673―686）が稗田阿礼（ひえだのあれ）に正しい記録を誦習させたのに始まります。天武天皇の死で事業は中断しましたが、その後、元明天皇（同707―715）の命で、稗田阿礼が誦習した内容を、太安万侶（おおのやすまろ）が筆録。和銅5年（712）にこれを進呈しました。
Emperor Tenmu, who ordered the compilation of the book, emerged victorious in the Jinshin War, one of the greatest coups d’état in Japanese history. By commissioning the Kojiki, he aimed to uphold the government’s rank and dignity and to affirm the legitimacy of the Tenno family as Japan’s divine rulers.
Buddhism from the Continent
Buddhism Deeply Rooted in Japanese Life
Buddhism was introduced to Japan in the 6th century and blended with Shintoism, which is tolerant of other religions. Unique Japanese aesthetics, such as Wabi-Sabi and Mono-no-Aware, are deeply related to Buddhist philosophy, illustrating how Buddhism has profoundly shaped Japanese life. However, Japanese people do not typically learn about Buddhism in school, and many may not fully understand its teachings, as Buddhist beliefs and customs are so deeply woven into everyday life. This section will discuss Buddhism in greater detail.
Buddhism was founded about 2,500 years ago by Gautama Siddhartha (Shakyamuni, the Buddha). It is considered one of the three major world religions, alongside Christianity and Islam. Buddhism’s central theme is, “What is the main cause of our suffering, and how can we overcome it?” “Buddha” does not mean “God” but rather “enlightened person” or “one who has attained the truth.” It is believed that by learning and practicing Buddhist teachings, one can be liberated from suffering and reach a state of enlightenment, or Gedatsu(deliverance).
Fundamental Concept of Buddhism: Four Signs of Buddhism
Issai-kaiku 一切皆苦
“一切 (Issai)” means “all things” or “everyone,” and “皆苦 (kaiku)” means “all are suffering.” In this context, “苦 (ku)” refers to “the feeling of frustration or distress when unable to achieve one’s desires.” Buddhism teaches that people suffer when they pursue what they desire, and it attributes the cause of suffering to “煩悩 (bonnō),” or worldly desires. Therefore, the first step in Buddhist learning is to accept that no one can live exactly as they wish.
Buddhism further elaborates on suffering through the teaching of “四苦八苦” (Shiku-Hakku), or “Four Sufferings and Eight Sufferings.” The primary Four Sufferings are birth, aging, illness, and death, which are inevitable aspects of life. The additional Four Sufferings are:
*愛別離苦 (Aibetsuriku): the suffering of separation from loved ones
*怨憎会苦 (Onzōeku): the suffering of encountering those one dislikes
*求不得苦 (Gufutoku-ku): the suffering of unfulfilled desires
*五蘊盛苦 (Gounjōku): the suffering arising from attachment to the “Five Aggregates” (things, sensations, perceptions, intentions, and consciousness)
Syogyo-mujo 諸行無常
The Tales of the Heike begins with the phrase “諸行無常 (Shogyō mujō),” which means that everything is in a state of change, and nothing remains the same. The belief or expectation that things cannot change is called “執着 (shūchaku),” or “attachment,” and this attachment is seen as the cause of suffering. Japan’s beautiful four seasons are marked by the changing views of nature, like cherry blossoms (sakura) in spring and maple leaves (momiji) in autumn, which people deeply appreciate. This awareness of life’s impermanence is also reflected in various phenomena, such as power struggles and the passage of time, leading to unique Japanese values like mono no aware (sensitivity to the ephemeral) and wabi-sabi (beauty in imperfection).
Syohou-muga 諸法無我
“諸法無我 (Shohō muga)” means that all phenomena are interconnected, with everything existing in a cause-and-effect relationship where each element influences the others. For example, just as you could not exist without your parents and grandparents, all things are bound by this chain of causality, which is also called “karma.” Similarly, “you” could not exist without your parents, friends, and environment, leading to the Buddhist belief that there is no inherent “you” (or what you perceive as “you”). This is the concept of “空 (kū),” often translated as “emptiness” or “nothingness.”
This concept is central to the Heart Sutra (般若心経, Hannya Shingyō), which is commonly recited at funerals. Phrases like “Let It Be” or “Let It Go” are often heard today, but in Buddhism, this state reflects a purified spirit free from attachment to the self, or “ego.” Buddhism teaches how to release the ego and dissolve the illusion of a separate “you.”
般若心経 現代語超訳 もっとい不動密蔵院より
この教えは、お釈迦さんを覚らせた仏さまがおっしゃったもので、心が豊かに、安らかになるための素晴らしい智慧のエッセンスについてのものなんだ。
観音さまっていう、とっても心のバランスがとれた仏さまがいるんだけど、その仏さまが、ある時、心静かに物事を観察していたら、心に何のわだかまりもなくなったんだ。そして、この世の中には何一つとして、永遠不滅で、変わらないもは無いっていうことがわかったんだ。
舎利子君、いいかい。物事は、その働きも、存在も、いろいろな条件が重なってそうなっているんだ。だから、その条件が変われば、結果も変わってくる。その条件は刻々と変化しているんだ。世の中はすべてそういう具合になっているんだ。
舎利子君、よくお聞きよ。色々な条件の中には自分の努力というのもあるけど、それだけじゃないんだ。ほかにも色々な、私たちには想像もつかないような条件が入り込んでいるんだ。
どんなものでも無数の条件でそこにあるのだから、何もないところから突然何かが出現するっていうこともないし、いきなり何にも無くなってしまうということもないっていうことさ。無くなるにしても何かの条件があるはずだからね。
物事は一見増えたり減ったりすることがあるけど、よく考えてみれば、ある場所から別の所へ移っただけなんだ。実質は増えても減ってもいないんだよ。
ちょっとびっくりするかもしれないけど、物だってさまざま条件によって変化しているし、私たちが頭で考えることだって、常に変化しているんだ。その日の気分っていうのがあるだろう。それと同じだよ。いつも自分は同じだと思っていたって、違っているんだ。なかなかそのことに気がつかないことが多いけどね。
よく人は年はとりたくないとか死にたくないって言うけど、じゃ年を取るって何だろう。死んじゃうってどういうことなんだろう。年を取るっていうのはある意味では成長するっていうことだろう。死にたくないっていうけど、それは死んだ後のことがわからないからだろう。じゃ私たちが生まれる前って何だったんだろう。きっと生まれる前と死んだ後は同じだよ。
私たちはこだわり過ぎるんだ。色々なことにね。こだわるっていうことは、そこにじっとしているっていうことだ。じっとしていたんじゃ他の素晴らしい世界を知ることもできないんじゃないかな。
仏さまたちはみんな、物事やその働きを心静かに観察して、そこから共通の法則を見つけ出したんだ。それを見つけ出すと、心が自由自在になるんだ。何かを恐がることもないし、現実を無視して「こうであったらいいのになあ」なんて夢見るようなことも考えないんだ。
こういう考え方というか、感性を身につけるのに、とっても素晴らしい呪文があるんだ。それはね、
ギャーテー・ギャーテー・ハーラーギャーテー・ハラソーギャーテー・ボージー・ソワカっていう呪文さ。
Nehan-jyakujo 涅槃寂静
“涅槃 (Nehan)” represents the state of enlightenment free from suffering, which is the ultimate goal of Buddhism. In English, this is known as “Nirvana” (also the name of a famous rock band from Washington). People often attribute the causes of their suffering, complaints, or anger to others or external factors, but the true source of suffering lies in worldly desires stemming from their own mind or perceptions. Understanding shohō muga (the absence of an independent self) and shogyō mujō (the impermanence of all things), removing worldly desires, and attaining inner peace are the steps to reach nehan-jakujo—that is, the state of enlightenment.
The Life of Buddha
What was the enlightened Gautama Siddhartha like?
Gautama Siddhartha, who later became the Buddha, was born as a prince of the Śākya tribe in Lumbini, in what is now Nepal, during the era of ancient India. As a child, he lived a comfortable and privileged life as a prince. He married and had a son. However, as he grew older, he came to recognize the pervasive nature of suffering in the world. At the age of 29, he renounced his royal life to seek a state of mind free from suffering and became a monk.
For six years, he engaged in rigorous ascetic practices under the guidance of Brahmin sages. However, he eventually realized that extreme austerity and corruption were not the paths to enlightenment. He understood that a balanced approach, which he called the “Middle Path” (中道), was essential. At the age of 35, he abandoned extreme asceticism and, after meditating for 49 days under a Bodhi tree, attained enlightenment, becoming the Buddha.
For the remaining 45 years of his life, he traveled and taught his philosophy, which became the foundation of present-day Buddhism. A similar concept exists in Chinese Confucianism, called “Moderation” (中庸), which emphasizes avoiding extremes and maintaining balance. This idea of harmony is a hallmark of Eastern philosophy.
仏陀の生涯とは、ここをクリック 日本仏教学院
The Origin of Japanese Buddhism
After Buddhism was introduced to Japan, a heated conflict arose between the Soga clan, which supported the acceptance of Buddhism, and the Mononobe clan, which sought to abolish it. Prince Shōtoku allied with the Soga clan in advocating for the adoption of Buddhism. The Soga clan ultimately triumphed in the conflict, and in 604, the second clause of the Seventeen-Article Constitution proclaimed, “The Three Treasures shall be respected.”
The “Three Treasures” refer to the Buddha, the Dharma (teachings), and the Sangha (monastic community). Japan developed its Buddhist tradition by organizing these three aspects into distinct fields. Historically, the adoption of Buddhism as a national policy was necessitated by Shinto’s limitations. Shinto lacked organized teachings and codified rules, making it unsuitable for the large-scale administration and management required for nation-building.
The History of Japanese Buddhism
At the end of the Nara period (710–794), the monk Dōkyō gained the trust of Retired Empress Kōken by curing her illness and subsequently seized significant power behind the throne. Eventually, he proclaimed, “If I ascend the throne as Emperor, the country will be peaceful,” and urged her to transfer the throne to him. However, his ambitions angered members of the imperial family, who expelled him from the court and criticized the growing corruption among Buddhist monks.
【道鏡】 弓削氏出身。 称徳天皇に信任されて政界に進出。 太政大臣禅師・法王となり、権力をふるったが、皇位をねらって藤原氏および 和気清麻呂 に阻止された。 天皇の死後、 下野 の薬師寺別当に左遷され、その地で没。
日本では、特に戦前まで、弓削道鏡（ゆげのどうきょう）・平将門・足利尊氏が、日本史上屈指の悪人とされていたのです。
To address the resulting turmoil, the imperial court sent monks to China as part of the “Envoys to the Tang Dynasty” mission to study the latest developments in Buddhism. Among these monks were Saichō and Kūkai. Upon their return, they established what is now called Heian Buddhism. Saichō founded the Tendai sect, and Kūkai founded the Shingon sect. Both leaders intentionally distanced their temple activities from politics, establishing their respective head temples in remote mountain areas.
両宗派の大きな違いは、真言宗で「顕教よりも密教がすぐれており、真言密教は宗派を超えた究極の境地である」と説いているのに対して、天台宗は「顕教一致＝顕教と密教は根本的に同じである」という考え方が基本にあります。 そのため、この両宗派を比べると真言宗のほうが、より密教的色彩が強くなっています。
In the late Heian period (beginning in 1052), as the aristocratic administration declined and samurai groups rose to prominence, the country descended into chaos, with worsening public security. The situation further deteriorated due to natural disasters, including the eruption of Mt. Fuji, droughts, and famines. These hardships led many to embrace the Mappō Ideology (末法思想)—a pessimistic belief that the world was nearing its end.
末法思想とは、簡単にいうと釈迦滅後の時代を、順に「正法」、「像法」、そして「末法」の3つに区分する仏教史観です。 末法になると釈迦の教えだけが残り、修行も悟りも得られなくなるとされます。
Emperors and aristocrats, frightened by this ideology, became devout followers of Buddhism. A notable example of their fears is the construction of the Phoenix Hall at Byōdō-in, which is depicted on Japan’s 10-yen coin. Among common people, the Mappō Ideology inspired an earnest faith in the Jōdo sect, which teaches that salvation can be attained by chanting the name of Amitabha Buddha (nembutsu).
Meanwhile, samurai warriors, hardened by the constant battles of the era, were drawn to the Zen sect, which emphasizes zazen (sitting meditation) to cultivate mental discipline and spiritual fortitude.
During the era of Oda Nobunaga (1534–1582), Buddhist temples regained significant power. However, their influence became so strong that Nobunaga sought to suppress them. He even went so far as to burn down Enryaku-ji, the head temple of the Tendai sect, located on Mount Hiei.
In the Edo period (1603–1867), the Tokugawa Shogunate implemented the Temple Registration System (寺請制度, tera-uke seido), requiring every commoner to register as a member of a Buddhist temple. This system was primarily designed to prevent the spread of other religions, such as Christianity. Under this policy, the Shogunate assigned each temple a specific parish. The residents of these parishes, known as danka (supporting parishioners), were obligated to financially support their designated temple and participate in religious rituals such as funerals. This arrangement became known as the Danka System (檀家制度).
In the Meiji period (1868–1912), the government sought to promote Kokugaku (国学), the study of ancient Japanese thought and culture. To establish State Shinto as a unifying national ideology, it issued the Order Separating Buddhism and Shintoism (神仏分離令, Shinbutsu Bunri Rei). This order led to the formal separation of Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples, as well as widespread destruction of Buddhist statues. The policy remained in effect until the end of World War II.
Throughout its history, Buddhism in Japan has experienced periods of both flourishing and decline. Today, it reflects a unique blend of practices shaped by these historical developments.
日本の歴史と仏教の広まり ここをクリック 刀剣ワールド
Japanese People and Buddhism
Buddhism was first divided into two major branches in India, its birthplace: Mahayana Buddhism (大乗仏教) and Hinayana Buddhism (小乗仏教). Over time, numerous subgroups emerged within each branch. In Japan, Mahayana Buddhism was introduced, and today it is said to include 13 main sects and 56 subsects. Below, some of the most prominent groups will be highlighted.
1. Nara Buddhism Group
This group is called “primitive Buddhism.” There are six sects, but among them Hossou sect, founded in about 650, is the oldest. Its teaching was the one that “三蔵法師 Xuanzang,” famous as a character of “西遊記 the journey to the West,” brought back from India to China. The monk Dosho as a member of an Envoy to Tang dynasty learned it in China and introduced it to Japan. The most famous temple of this group is Todaiji Temple, built in Nara in 745.
2. Ascetic Sects Group
This is Heian Buddhism, introduced by Saicho and Kukai, members of envoys to
Tang dynasty. At that time, the main sects of Tang’s Buddhism were ascetic ones. Both Tendai sect and Shingon sect were ascetic, but there was some difference between them. Shingon sect places an emphasis only on ascetic teachings, while Tendai sect has adopted not only ascetic elements but also Zen meditation, disciplines, and chanting prayers and others. In these ascetics, 大日如来Mahavairocana is taken as the truth of the universe. Mandara representing it and Mantra chanting it as a hymn or curse are well known. The monks have some trainings like Yoga practice.
3. Jodo Sects Group
In the early seventh century, Jodo ideology came from China to Japan. This thought taught that one can be reborn in the land of Perfect Bliss only by reciting the Nenbutsu phrase “南無阿弥陀仏 Namu-Amidabutu (Homage to Amida Buddha).”
This belief spread widely among aristocrats and commoners. Hiraizumi, Iwate has Chusonji Temple and Motsuji Temple, representing the land of Perfect Bliss. This was deeply influenced by Jodo ideology at this time, and the town was designated as a World Heritage in 2011. In the short story “the Spider’s Thread” written by Akutagawa Ryunosuke, there is one part based on this thought. A sinful guy in Hell has once stopped stepping on a spider at the edge of a road and saved it out of mercy, so Amida Buddha hung a spider thread from the Land of Perfect Bliss to save him. In the Jodo thought, bad men are the fundamental motivation to save, the true hope of Amida Buddha. This is called “悪人正機 (the evil is the object of salvation).” They say “Jodo Sect saves even sinful people. Jodo-shin-Sect saves sinful people just because of being sinful.” Unlike ascetic sect requiring hard practices, these Jodo sects are characteristic of the idea of “他力本願 (salvation by faith)” that everyone can be saved by Amida Buddha only by reciting the Nenbutsu prayer.
4. Zen Group
During the late Heian period, as samurai warriors rose to power and established the first samurai government, the Kamakura shogunate, they developed a strong faith in the Zen sect. Zen practices, particularly Zazen (sitting meditation), were admired for enhancing concentration and fostering mental fortitude, qualities highly valued by the samurai.
Zen Buddhism was introduced to Japan by Eisai and Dōgen, both of whom traveled to China during the Song dynasty to study Buddhism. Eisai established the Rinzai sect, while Dōgen founded the Sōtō sect.
Although both sects emphasize the practice of Zazen, they differ in their approaches:
The Rinzai sect focuses on attaining enlightenment through Kanna-zen (看話禅), a Zen practice centered on meditative inquiry using questions and answers (often in the form of kōan, or paradoxical riddles).
看話禅、公案を考え、理解していくことによって、大悟 (だいご) に至ろうとする禅風。
The Sōtō sect, on the other hand, advocates Mokushō-zen (黙照禅), a meditative approach that emphasizes quiet sitting and awareness without striving for specific outcomes.
Zen
Steve Jobs, the founder of Apple Corporation, was invited by a Zen monk to visit Kyoto half a year before his death. It is said that Apple products embody the Zen concept of simplicity and beauty by eliminating all unnecessary elements. Recently, the word ‘Zen’ has spread worldwide. In the West, Zazen is often equated with ‘Mindfulness.’ It has gained significant attention due to scientific evidence showing its effectiveness in enhancing concentration and immune function, increasing happiness, alleviating depression, and reducing stress. Recently, it has been adopted in corporate training programs at major companies such as Google, Facebook, and IBM. This Western-style Zen, presented as Mindfulness without religious connotations, was brought back to Japan and has gained some attention.
What is Zen?
Zen (禅) is derived from ‘zenjo’ (禅定) or ‘zenna’ (善那), meaning ‘devotion to one thing’ or ‘mental concentration.’ Zen Buddhism places the highest value on Zazen meditation as a means to master Zen and achieve enlightenment. Unifying the spirit is considered essential for seeking the truth.
Zen is a simple practice focused on concentrating the mind on one thing. It can be likened to water in this way: shallow, rapid breathing creates a rippling surface that obscures the water’s depths. In contrast, calm, steady breathing creates a still surface that reveals the water’s depths. Seeing the bottom of the water is a metaphor for the mental state of accepting everything as it is.
The purpose of Zen is to let go of worries about the past or future and focus on one thing, fully present in this moment and place. This high level of consciousness is called ‘sanmai’ (三昧), a state of perfect concentration.
Zazen is not the only practice for attaining this state. Zen encourages monks to live properly by viewing everyday activities such as cleaning, cooking, and eating as valuable forms of training. Samurai warriors, who constantly risked their lives, were particularly drawn to Zen. They sought to develop a heightened power of concentration to overcome fear, worry, and distractions from negative emotions or thoughts of the future.
The History of Zen
The founder of Zen was Bodhidharma, known in Japan as Daruma and represented in popular culture as the lucky Daruma doll. He traveled from India to China in the early 6th century, achieved enlightenment after nine years of meditation facing a wall, and founded Zen Buddhism. According to legend, during his strict practices, his arms and legs withered away, and he cut them off. This is why a Daruma doll has no arms or legs.
In Japan, Zen Buddhism spread widely during the Kamakura period under the rule of the samurai government. Later, in the Muromachi period (1336–1573), Zen greatly influenced the design of rock and dry gardens as well as the practices of the Wabi tea ceremony. Additionally, disciplines with ‘道’ (do, meaning ‘the way’) in their names—such as Kendo, Judo, Sado (tea ceremony), and Shodo (calligraphy)—are deeply connected to Zen, emphasizing spiritual elements such as politeness, proper behavior, and modesty over winning or losing.
Although Zen originated in China, the fall of the Qing Dynasty and Mao Zedong’s Cultural Revolution led to its decline in popularity there. Today, Zen is more commonly associated with Japanese culture and spirituality.
The Teaching of “Furyu-Monji”
Zen has a phrase, ‘Furyu-Monji,’ meaning that enlightenment cannot be expressed through words or writing. Enlightenment is believed to be attained through repeated training and direct experiences shared by masters with their disciples. Therefore, Zen emphasizes introspective practice through Zazen rather than chanting sutras or studying texts.
Since Zen holds that enlightenment cannot be expressed in words, it has developed nonverbal methods of expression, including ink painting, sculpture, tea ceremony, gardening, and flower arrangement. Ink painting is characterized by its delicate expression of light and shade, using only ink and techniques of drawing and blurring.
The most famous sculpture is the ‘Kongo Rikishi Statue’ at Todaiji Temple, symbolizing the strength sought by samurai warriors. The Zen philosophy and the concept of ‘Wabi-Sabi’ can be found in tea ceremony, gardening, and flower arrangement.
Steps of Zazen Meditation
Zazen meditation involves three steps: posture, breathing, and mind. These steps are followed in order to prepare for true meditation. One removes their worldly thoughts, concentrates on their breathing, and focuses on the present moment.
The breathing begins with slow inhalations into the lungs, followed by full exhalations through the mouth. This process is repeated three times before switching to nose breathing. This slow breathing, lasting about 10 seconds per cycle, is repeated steadily for 10 to 40 minutes.
Worldly thoughts can be compared to clouds in the sky. The rain from the clouds wets the ground, but above the clouds, the sun always shines. The rain represents desires and egoistic thoughts, and letting go of these leads to a tranquil, suffering-free mind. This is one aim of Zen.
座禅とは心を無にしてひたすら座ること。 もともとは禅宗の修行方法の一つで、自分と向き合うことを目的としています。 座禅で大切なのは、調身（姿勢を調える）、調息（呼吸を調える）、調心（心を調える）の3つです。
Other Japanese Unique Thoughts and Beliefs
The history of the distinctive syncretism between Shinto and Buddhism illustrates how Japanese beliefs and philosophies uniquely evolved through the integration of foreign cultures
Mountain Belief and Syugen-do
In ancient Japan, people expressed gratitude and reverence for mountains and forests, which they believed could bring both blessings and disasters. This led to the development of mountain worship, centered on revering mountains as sources of life-giving water. According to this belief, a person’s soul returns to the mountain after death, is purified through yearly rituals, and becomes a god thirty-three years later, protecting descendants from the mountain.
As a result, mountains were regarded as sacred places or objects of worship, as they were thought to house gods and the spirits of the dead. This belief merged with Shinto and ascetic Buddhist practices to form Shugendō, a spiritual tradition known for the mountain priests called Yamabushi.
The goal of Shugendō is to engage in rigorous training (Shu) in holy mountains to acquire special spiritual power (Gen), which can be used to aid others. This Gen power, considered a blessing or divine favor from gods and spirits, is obtained through practices like Takigyō (standing and chanting sutras under a waterfall) and Hiwatari (walking barefoot over burning coals). Rooted in ascetic Buddhism, Shugendō used these practices as a form of mystical power for spiritual and practical purposes.
One example is Sokushin-jōbutsu, a practice aimed at relieving the suffering of people during famines and disease outbreaks. It was commonly performed in the Hokuriku region. To save others, Buddhist monks and Shugendō priests would seal themselves alive in a stone tomb, continuing to chant sutras until they passed away and became mummified, ultimately transforming into gods. The mummified body is called Sokushinbutsu. This was considered the highest form of spiritual training. Today, 17 Sokushinbutsu remain in Japan.
即身仏は諸説あるが、江戸時代初期以降、飢饉（ききん）や病気に苦しむ世の平和を願い、生きたまま仏になろうとした僧侶を指す。 全国１７体のうち、山形が８体で最多。 新潟４体、福島、茨城、長野、岐阜、京都が各１体だ。
The founder of Shugendō is sometimes said to be Tengu, a mythical creature regarded either as a god or a monster. The main sacred figure in Shugendō is En-no-Gyōja, a prominent figure of the late 6th century who, according to legend, had disciples among ogre-like creatures. He is now enshrined under the name Kōngōzāō-Gongen.
Tengu
Shugendō was highly popular during the Heian period (794–1295). Since approximately 70 percent of Japan’s land is covered in mountainous forests, this belief spread widely across the country. However, when the Meiji government issued edicts to separate Buddhism from Shinto and to abolish Shugendō, most of its followers and practices disappeared.
Despite this, some Shugendō traditions persist, such as the beliefs surrounding Mount Fuji, Kumano, and three sacred mountains of Shugendō: Mount Ōmine, Mount Dewasanzan, and Mount Hiko. Dewasanzan has three peaks: Mount Gessan, representing the past world; Mount Hagura, representing the present world; and Mount Yudono, representing the next world. It is said that after climbing all three peaks, one is purified. This pilgrimage is popular as a journey of spiritual rebirth.
①出羽三山［山形県］ 3つの霊山からなる東北随一の霊場 · ②大峯山［奈良県］ 1300余年前に開山された修験道発祥の地 · ③英彦山［福岡県、大分県］ 天照大御神の子が降臨した九州一の霊山
The Role of Onmyoji, Yin and Yang Masters
There is a Japanese word, majinai, meaning ‘charm.’ This is associated with Onmyōji, a tradition that blends Shintoism, Buddhism, and Taoism.
The most famous Onmyōji is Abe no Seimei, who lived during the Heian period. Legend has it that he was called upon by aristocrats to exorcise evil spirits and Oni monsters using spells, shikigami (servant monsters), kuchiyose (medium), purification rituals, and kekkai (barriers). In the 2001 film Onmyōji, the word ‘Sowaka,’ a chant, is prominently featured. It means ‘the accomplishment of prayer.’ According to legend, Seimei was said to be the son of a fox spirit and a human. He reportedly mastered the arts of onmyōdō in just four years.
The origin of Onmyōji can be traced back to when Kanroku, from Paekche, a country in Korea, introduced astronomy, the calendar, and the Chinese ‘yin-yang-five-element’ theory to Prince Shotoku. Later, as the political system became more law-based, the office named ‘Onmyō-ryō (house of Onmyōdō)’ was established and developed. It had two major roles: one was public service to practically construct the country using astronomy, building skills, and arithmetic, while the other was defense, relying on spiritual powers such as charms, barriers, and mystic techniques. The latter role is closer to the image of Onmyōji depicted in films. As the Onmyō-ryō was established, its influence extended to everything from politics and town planning to daily customs of life, all based on Onmyō-dō principles. The Meiji government abolished the system of Onmyōdō, but many remnants of Onmyōji practices still exist. For example, in the layout of a house, northeast is considered a direction from which evil spirits (oni) are believed to come, known as ‘Kimon (gate for oni).’ As a result, entrances and bathrooms are not designed in the northeast of the house.
Dragon God Belief
In the West, dragons and snakes are often considered evil creatures, while in the East, including Japan, dragons are revered as holy beings. In ancient times, Japan had a belief in snakes: snakes that ate wild rats were considered gods of a good harvest; snakes that shed their skin were seen as gods of longevity; and snakes that lived near water were revered as gods of water. In the Yayoi period, when the dragon, also a god of water, was introduced to Japan, the beliefs surrounding snakes and gods merged.
In Japan, there is a popular dragon god legend. For example, when people prayed for rainfall, a dragon would appear, bringing clouds, lightning, and rain. Many legendary stories tell of dragons living in waterfalls or lakes. One of the most famous stories is about “Zennyo-Ryuo.” In 824, during a prolonged drought in Japan, the imperial court asked the Buddhist monk Kukai to pray for rain. With the aid of the dragon god named “Zennyo-Ryuo,” who lived in a pond that never dried up in Northern India, Kukai caused rain to fall heavily across Japan for three days. It is believed that the Dragon God functions like a cluster of water or “Ki” moving freely through heaven and earth. Wherever the Dragon God moves, “ki” flows, clouds appear, winds blow, and rain falls. Just as water changes form — from gas (mist) to liquid (water) to solid (ice) — and influences the air and climate, the Dragon God is said to have the power to control the weather. A place called “Ryuketsu” (dragon hole) is often located near lakes or waterfalls, and in connection with the Dragon God, it is considered a site of spiritual power.
