11 The U.S. Presidential Election 2024
The presidential election is held every four years, lasting over a year and involving the following steps: the announcement of candidacy, preliminary elections, inter-party proceedings, and the general election.
In the general election held in November, eligible voters cast their ballots for a candidate, but the outcome does not necessarily reflect the popular vote. The votes are tallied in each state, and the winning candidate in that state receives all its electoral votes. In December, the electors cast their votes, and the candidate who secures at least 270 of the 538 total votes is elected president.
The 2024 election began with the candidacies of incumbent President Joe Biden from the Democratic Party and former President Donald Trump from the Republican Party. Following a shooting incident involving Mr. Trump, President Biden announced his withdrawal from the election race. The Democratic Party nominated Vice President Kamala Harris as their presidential candidate.
“The fight against prolonged inflation,” “policies on illegal immigration,” and “abortion rights” are the three major issues in the presidential election. The Biden administration is credited with improving the economic situation and strongly supports abortion rights. These two factors are significant in gaining broader voter support. However, it faces strong criticism for its lenient policies on illegal immigration, a stance that benefits Mr. Trump.
In the 2020 presidential election, confusion arose due to prolonged vote counting in some states and Mr. Trump’s objections following Mr. Biden’s declaration of victory, particularly regarding mail-in ballots. For the 2024 presidential election, vote counting will take place on November 5, with the inauguration scheduled for February 20, 2025.

12 The New Cold War
The term New Cold War refers to current geopolitical conflicts, drawing an analogy to the Cold War that followed World War II, characterized by tensions between Eastern bloc countries (socialist) and Western bloc countries (capitalist).
Tensions are intensifying between liberal democratic countries, primarily in Europe and the United States, and authoritarian regimes such as Russia, China, and North Korea.
The New Cold War is most evident in the invasion of Ukraine. In February 2022, Russia invaded Ukraine, prompting NATO countries, led by the United States and the European Union, to support Ukraine, escalating tensions between both sides.
Furthermore, Russia has strengthened its ties with China and North Korea. On June 19, 2024, President Putin met with North Korean General Secretary Kim Jong Un to finalize the Comprehensive Strategic Partnership Treaty. The treaty stipulates that if either party faces an armed invasion, the other will provide military support, effectively making it a military alliance.
The treaty highlights Russia’s need for military support from North Korea, while North Korea aims to counterbalance the influence of Japan and South Korea, both aligned with the United States.
In the New Cold War, China’s actions cannot be overlooked. The United States, as the leader of NATO, has maintained tense relations with China since the trade disputes began in 2018.
The key question is whether China will strengthen its relationship with Russia or seek to improve ties with the United States. The underlying conflict in the New Cold War may ultimately be a struggle for global hegemony between China and the United States.
欧米や日本などはウクライナを支援する立場を鮮明にしていて、アメリカなどは軍事支援を続けています。これに対して、ロシアは中国や北朝鮮との連携を強めています。こうした構図が、2つの陣営が対峙していたかつての冷戦と似ていることから、「新冷戦」との見方が出ています。アメリカに同調するEUおよびNATO所属のヨーロッパ諸国や、中国からの侵攻を防ごうとする台湾・韓国・日本・フィリピン・ベトナム・モンゴル・オーストラリア、さらにロシアの影響から抜け出したいウクライナ・フィンランド・カザフスタン等の国々が関わり、国際情勢は非常に複雑に絡み合っている。
13 Summit (Major Countries Summit Meeting)
The term “summit,” meaning “the top of a mountain,” is used for meetings attended by leaders of major world powers. The first such summit was held in 1975 to address what became known as the “Oil Shock.” Today, the G7 summit focuses on global challenges, including international security, the world economy, and environmental issues like climate change.
As emerging economies have gained influence, the G20 was established in 2008. Meanwhile, the G7 has seen its influence wane. In 2014, after Russia forcibly annexed Crimea, the group expelled Russia, marking what was referred to as “the collapse of the G8.” Russia has since sought to create a bloc of non-G7 nations by deepening ties with emerging powers like China.
In June 2024, the G7 summit was held in Puglia, Italy. The Pope attended to address concerns about artificial intelligence, particularly its potential military applications. The summit concluded with an appeal for international regulations and a pledge of $50 billion in additional financing for Ukraine. This funding will come from a proposed system using $300 billion in frozen Russian assets held by Europe and the United States.
Following the G7 summit, the inaugural “World Peace Summit” convened in Switzerland to discuss Ukraine’s proposed peace plan. However, only 80 of 92 participating countries supported the joint statement, underscoring the difficulty of achieving a ceasefire.The G20 Summit is scheduled to take place in Brazil in November 2024, with the next G7 Summit hosted by Canada in 2025.


14. The Division of the World and International Framework
The United Nations is a global organization aimed at maintaining peace and security worldwide. After Russia invaded Ukraine in February 2022, the UN adopted a resolution requesting the immediate withdrawal of Russian military forces. However, the resolution lacked legally binding power, highlighting the organization’s inability to enforce its decisions. Over the next five emergency special meetings, the diplomatic stance of each country became evident. Belarus and North Korea voted against the resolution, while many countries in Africa and Central Asia abstained from voting.
In October 2023, military conflicts erupted between Israel and the Islamic group Hamas. The United Nations Security Council held emergency meetings to discuss a resolution addressing the conflict in the Gaza Strip. As the US and its rival countries, Russia and China, exercised their vetoes, the council struggled to reach an agreement. In December 2023, during its fifth meeting, the council finally adopted a resolution calling for a temporary ceasefire in the Gaza Strip. It received affirmative votes from more than nine countries, meeting the threshold for adoption, while the three permanent members refrained from exercising their vetoes.
Amid growing concerns about global divisions, some international movements aim to build larger coalitions. The BRICS bloc added five new member countries in 2024, with Thailand and Malaysia applying to join. French President Emmanuel Macron emphasized the need to establish the European Political Community (EPC), comprising the 27 EU countries, the UK, Switzerland, and the Balkan states—a total of 44 nations—to form a competitive framework for cooperation against China and Russia. Additionally, the African Union (AU) recently joined the G20.




15 The Global South
The Global South generally refers to emerging or developing countries located in the southern part of the Northern Hemisphere and throughout the Southern Hemisphere. This term is often used in contrast to the developed nations of the Northern Hemisphere, collectively referred to as the Global North. The Global South includes regions such as Southeast Asia, India, Africa, Central and South America, Pacific island nations, and others.
The Global South is characterized by population growth and potential for economic development. However, many countries in the region face significant challenges, including poverty, educational disparities, health issues, environmental pollution, racial conflicts, and more. Rapid population growth strains these nations, unlike developed countries, which often grapple with aging societies, declining birth rates, and population decline.
Conflicts have intensified between authoritarian nations such as Russia, which invaded Ukraine, and China, which pursues maritime expansion, and Western countries, including the G7, EU, NATO, and Australia. To maintain global order, Western nations seek to align the Global South with their interests. However, many Global South countries adopt a neutral stance to prioritize their national interests.
India, the leading country in the Global South, has the largest population globally and surpassed the UK to rank fifth in global GDP in 2022. In January 2023, India hosted the online meeting Voice of the Global South, bringing together representatives from 125 countries. During his address, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi underscored the region’s significance, stating, “Three-quarters of the world’s population lives in our countries.”
India has emerged as a pivotal global player, asserting its strategic autonomy and collaborating with diverse nations, regardless of their ideologies or principles.


17 the United Nations
The United Nations was established in response to the failure of the League of Nations to prevent the Second World War. In October 1945, it was founded by 51 countries. Japan became a member in 1956. With South Sudan joining in 2011, the number of members reached 193.
With the General Assembly at its core, the UN comprises specialized agencies such as the Security Council and the International Court of Justice. The General Assembly is where each member has one vote on every issue. Japan has served as a two-year non-permanent member of the Security Council since 2023.
The UN’s primary function is to maintain global peace and security. Against countries that threaten global peace, it can pass resolutions imposing economic sanctions and military measures. Even after conflicts end, it carries out peacekeeping operations (PKOs) such as armistice agreements, election monitoring, and reconstruction support.
When Russia, a permanent member of the Security Council, invaded Ukraine, an emergency special meeting called for Russia’s immediate withdrawal. However, the resolution was not legally binding, making it unenforceable. In November 2023, the Security Council finally adopted a resolution during its fifth meeting, calling for a ceasefire in the Gaza Strip in Palestine. In the previous four meetings, the US and its rivals, Russia and China, cast vetoes, preventing the resolution’s adoption.
Additionally, the UN plays major roles in various areas such as the economy, culture, environment, and human rights. These responsibilities are handled by specialized agencies, including the World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).


18 Economic Partnerships Around the World
The world has witnessed an increasing number of international agreements and the establishment of economic communities. These developments facilitate the smoother movement of goods, capital, and human resources across national borders while encouraging joint investments by multiple countries.
In December 2018, the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP), joined by Pacific-rim countries such as Japan and Chile, came into effect. It establishes rules in various areas, including tariffs, financial services, and electronic commerce. In February 2019, the Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) between Japan and the EU took effect, creating a massive economic zone that accounts for about 40% of global trade. Japan also established EPAs with the United States in January 2020 and with the United Kingdom in January 2021, following the UK’s departure from the EU. In July 2023, the UK officially became a CPTPP member.
The Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), joined by fifteen countries under the advocacy of ASEAN, came into effect in ten ratifying countries as of January 2022. South Korea and Malaysia followed later that year, with Indonesia and the Philippines joining in 2023. Myanmar is the only country that signed the RCEP but has not yet ratified it.
In September 2022, negotiations began for the Indo-Pacific Economic Framework for Prosperity (IPEF), a new economic initiative involving 14 countries and accounting for roughly 40% of the global economy. By February 2024, five member countries, including Japan and the US, implemented agreements related to supply networks ahead of the framework’s full implementation. This marked the world’s first international supply network agreement.
Large-scale economic organizations, such as the CPTPP, bring significant benefits to their member countries, but they also pose challenges. For example, while the EU’s adoption of the common currency, the euro, streamlined trade and finance, it also faced the ‘Euro Crisis,’ largely driven by Greece’s budget deficit.
2024年にCPTPPに加盟する12カ国:日本、メキシコ、シンガポール、ニュージーランド、カナダ、オーストラリア、ベトナム、ペルー、マレーシア、チリ、ブルネイ、英国(12月15日までに発効予定、2024年8月30日記事参照)を含む。
2024年のRCEP加盟国: 現時点(2024年5月)における締約国は、日本以外にシンガポール、豪州、ニュージーランド、カナダ、メキシコ、ベトナム、ペルー、マレーシア、チリ、ブルネイ、英国。
米国のジョー・バイデン大統領は5月23日、日本を含む12カ国とインド太平洋経済枠組み(IPEF:Indo-Pacific Economic Framework for Prosperity)の立ち上げを発表した。発足段階での参加国は、米国、日本、インド、ニュージーランド、韓国、シンガポール、タイ、ベトナム、ブルネイ、インドネシア、マレーシア、フィリピン、そしてオーストラリアの13カ国となった 。

19 Energy Situations in Major Countries
Global energy consumption increases annually due to economic and technological development. In 1990, global energy consumption was 11.8 trillion kWh, and by 2020, it had doubled to 26.7 trillion kWh. Currently, fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas—account for 40 percent of energy sources, the same rate as about 30 years ago.
Countries are working to reduce carbon emissions, but many still depend heavily on fossil fuels. A group of developing countries has set a goal to cut carbon emissions by 40 percent compared to 2013 levels by 2030. However, China estimates its emissions will rise by about 14 percent, and India’s by nearly 99 percent.
At the June 2024 G7 Summit in Italy, member nations agreed to phase out coal-fired power plants that fail to reduce CO2 emissions by the mid-2030s. Japan, which relies on coal for 30 percent of its energy resources, has not yet announced a deadline for its phase-out.
Energy-related challenges encompass various areas, including decarbonization, supply stability, pricing, security, diplomacy, and domestic policy. Germany, previously reliant on Russian natural gas via the Nord Stream pipeline, has shifted its suppliers to Qatar and the US. Similarly, Italy, which depended on Russia for 30 percent of its natural gas, now sources its supply from Algeria through strengthened bilateral relations.
The EU plans to end fossil fuel imports from Russia by 2027. While most European nations continue to use nuclear power, Germany ceased all nuclear power plant operations in April 2023.



20 Nuclear Powers
During the Cold War, the United States and Russia—then part of the Soviet Union—competed in the development of nuclear technology. Although the two nations avoided direct conflict, the constant fear of nuclear war drove global attention to disarmament efforts. This led to the establishment of international organizations and treaties focused on nuclear development and atomic energy.
The cornerstone of nuclear disarmament is the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), which prohibits any country other than five—the United States, the United Kingdom, France, China, and Russia—from possessing nuclear weapons. However, this has sparked criticism, as some countries argue that it is unfair for only these five nations to retain nuclear arsenals. Notably, India and Pakistan have refused to ratify the treaty and have developed their own nuclear weapons, creating significant international tensions. Additionally, Russia has recently hinted at the possibility of using nuclear weapons in its conflict with Ukraine.
In May 2023, the Hiroshima G7 Summit issued the “Hiroshima Vision,” a joint statement advocating nuclear disarmament and condemning Russia’s implied threat to use nuclear weapons. However, the situation escalated shortly afterward. In June 2023, Russia began deploying tactical nuclear weapons in Belarus under its direct control. In response, Polish Prime Minister Mateusz Morawiecki, representing a NATO member state bordering Belarus, expressed interest in joining the “Nuclear Sharing” system. This system permits the deployment of American nuclear weapons in NATO countries for potential cooperative use during emergencies.
In 2015, an agreement was reached during nuclear talks with Iran to limit its nuclear development over the long term. However, in 2018, the Trump administration withdrew from the agreement and imposed economic sanctions on Iran, undermining the deal’s effectiveness. By August 2024, Iran’s new reformist president, Masoud Pezeshkian, formed a cabinet signaling a shift toward renewing the nuclear agreement and pursuing a more conciliatory diplomatic approach with Europe and the United States.

